Within a business, Hofstedes framework can also help managers to understand why their employees behave the way they do. The evolutionary logic in the works of Inglehart and Welzel predicts a generational shift from orientations dominant under pressing existential threats (i.e., survival orientations) toward orientations dominant under abundant existential opportunities (i.e., emancipative orientations)to the extent to which socioeconomic development indeed changed objective living conditions that way. Cohort effects 1990 and 2010; CollectivismIndividualism. Our finding on the importance of country-specific factors rooted in history and geography and climate resonates very well with cross-cultural studies highlighting the importance of such ecological factors to understand cross-country cultural scores (Georgas & Berry, 1995; Kashima & Kashima, 2003; van de Vliert, 2006, 2011). . The minimum number of respondents per country in each birth cohort is 100. Models 1 (CollectivismIndividualism), 4 (DutyJoy), and 7 (DistrustTrust) explain national cultural differences by level of economic development (log GDP per capita) in a balanced sample including country-fixed effects. Vanhanen (2003) has created an Index of Power Resources (IPR), which combines indicators of occupational specialization, formal education, and economic de-concentration. (2007). Hofstede G., Hofstede G. J., Minkov M. (2010). Hofstede was the first to quantify cultural orientations held by people in more than 60 countries. Hofstede (1980) originally provided country scores for four dimensions of national culture: Power Distance (vs. Closeness),3 Uncertainty Avoidance (vs. A visual inspection of the scatter plots corroborates these statistical findings (see Figures 1a, 1b, and 1c in the online appendix). Second, cultural frameworks like ours have been used to develop a composite measure of cultural distance collapsing all cultural dimensions into a single Euclidean distance index (Beugelsdijk et al., 2017; Kogut & Singh, 1988). Since then, it's become an internationally recognized standard for understanding cultural differences. 17.In addition to GDP per capita, we have explored a broader indicator of welfare. The fundamental issue here is what motivates people, wanting to be the best (Masculine) or liking what you do (Feminine). achievement For these purposes, masculinity refers to traits associated with assertiveness and femininity refers to traits associated with nurture. We applied the same imputation technique for some countries part of the former Soviet Union. Low-income countries (N = 7; Nrespondents = 37,330) include Egypt, India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Peru, Philippines, and Vietnam. Geert Hofstede shed light on how cultural differences are still significant today in a world that is becoming more and more diverse. Inspire Future Generations. We summarize the criticism raised in the context of their theories. What is the perfect Organisational Culture? Substituting GDP per capita by the IPR index gives similar results. This second dimension also captures beliefs about proper goals in life (living also for the moment, that is, joy) thereby capturing two classic cultural dimensions (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961). As cohort replacement happens at a glacial pace (especially in the face of rising life expectancies), the upward shift is modest. This is an important conclusion in light of the criticism that such distance indices received (Kirkman et al., 2006; Shenkar, 2001). Country-Level Factor Analysis 15 WVS-EVS Questions. We add these specifications due to the fact that all of these dimensions are bipolar. We exclude Vietnam here given its very high (outlier) score on the DistrustTrust dimension (see the online appendix for additional information). Beyond the Chinese face: Insights from psychology. Social capital and growth in European regions: An empirical test, The Maddison Project: Collaborative research on historical national accounts, Individualismcollectivism in Hofstede and GLOBE, Chinese values and the search for culture-free dimensions of culture. For DutyJoy and DistrustTrust, by contrast, the residuals are of a more country-specific nature, reflecting singularities in each countrys history that are not so easily generalizable across countries. This revised theory of modernization predicts that national cultures change, but that relative country rankings do not. Freedom rising: Human empowerment and the quest for emancipation, Evolution, empowerment and emancipation: How societies climb the freedom ladder. Hofstedes cultural dimensions can be used to help explain why certain behaviors are more or less common in different cultures. Vertical distance from the Isoline indicates the amount of change. . Individualistic societies put more value on self-striving and personal accomplishment, while more collectivistic societies put more emphasis on the importance of relationships and loyalty. We demonstrate empirically that combining these two concepts leads to an improved understanding of cultural differences. Hence, Individualism embodies a strong anti-authoritarian impulse that aligns naturally with Power Distance. Individualism versus Collectivism denotes the extent to which people see themselves primarily as autonomous personalities (Individualism) or primarily as members of tightly knit communities (Collectivism). Hofstede (1980) was the first researcher to reduce cross-national cultural diversity to country scores on a limited number of dimensions. Moreover, the difference in slopes between advanced postindustrial democracies and developing societies underscores the relevance of economic development for cultural change. In general, status is more important in high power distance countries. Short-term orientation is associated with less saving, a preference for quick results, and unrestrained spending in response to social pressure (often referred to in English as keeping up with the Joneses). We apply a variety of psychometric techniques commonly used in cross-cultural psychology and comparative sociology. We consider construct validity of sufficient quality to continue working with these three dimensions. These are strong generational effects. The final selection criterion is that the correlation between a specific WVS-EVS items country score and country scores of any of the four original dimensions is |.5| or higher. The explained variance of the three factors is high, that is, 27% for Factor 1, 26% for Factor 2, and 19% for Factor 3. Masculinity versus its opposite, femininity refers to the distribution of roles between the genders which is another fundamental issue for any society to which a range of solutions are found. Smith P. B., Dugan S., Trompenaars F. (1996). Hoftstede, using a specific statistical method called factor analysis, initially identified four value dimensions: individualism and collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity and femininity. This dimension was also identified on the basis of WVS items and reflects the degree to which people are inclined to express emotions and enjoy momentary pleasures (Indulgence) or to what extent they suppress emotional impulses and have a need for discipline and strict codes of conduct. Using a variety of indicators, Hamamura (2012) not only reports a shift toward individualism in the United States and Japan but also highlights the persistent cultural heritage in these two countries, a finding in line with Ingleharts revised modernization thesis. This becomes evident from the results of a factor analysis on Hofstedes six dimensions as shown in Table 1. From Hofstede (2001), Cultures Consequences, 2nd This article describes briefly the Hofstede's four dimensions of national cultures: Power Distance, Individualism vs. Collectivism, Masculinity vs. Femininity and Uncertainty Avoidance and describes Turkey in terms of these dimensions. Finally, the restraint and indulgence dimension considers the extent and tendency of a society to fulfill its desires. Inspired by Maslows (1954) hierarchy of human needs, the findings of Inglehart and his co-authors (Inglehart & Norris, 2003; Inglehart & Welzel, 2005) demonstrate a universal principle in the functioning of the human mind: the utility ladder of freedoms, as Welzel (2013) has coined it. Masculinity-femininity cultural dimension is addressed as a societal, not an individual's, characteristic and "refers to the distribution of values between the genders " (Hofstede, 2011). Two other dimensions were added in later years by Hofstede and independent researchers: long-term orientation and indulgence vs. self-restraint. Power Distance versus Closeness reflects the extent to which people reject (Distance) or appreciate (Closeness) hierarchies and the authority of a few over the many. We argue that this disciplinary division is unfortunate because the two concepts are complementary, for which reason a synthesis rectifies their mutual weaknesses. Human Relations, 55( 11), 1363-1372. Finally, we find only two items that correlate (weakly) with Masculinity versus Femininity. Value orientations from the World Values Survey: How comparable are they cross-nationally? Hofstede has since incorporated Confucian dynamism into his own theory as long-term vs. short-term orientation. An official website of the United States government. Economic progress and generational effects do not explain cultural change completely though. Our re-examination of three of Hofstedes dimensions should not be seen as an effort to legitimize his approach in general, nor are we suggesting that Hofstede is right and other cross-cultural frameworks are wrong. the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. Inglehart and Welzel (2005) have summarized these findings in a revised theory of modernization. Welzel (2013) has developed this theory further into an evolutionary theory of emancipation, pointing out some key qualifications of emancipatory value change. Autocratic leadership around the globe: Do climate and wealth drive leadership culture? Psychological review, 98(2), 224. A non-negligible part of this cross-country variation is due to country-fixed effects. The DistrustTrust dimension is 10 points lower (N = 44). WITIs ecosystem includes more than a million professionals, 60 networks and 300 partners, worldwide. Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. WITI is redefining the way women and men collaborate to drive innovation and business growth and is helping corporate partners create and foster gender inclusive cultures. 11.The relatively small subject-to-item ratio is no cause of concern (Leung & Bond, 1989; MacCallum, Widaman, Zhang, & Hong, 1999). Countries scoring low on the first dimension having more traditional-collectivist values believe in God and feel that respect is important in a job and that obedience is an important child quality. But Schwartz himself, who already expressed his concern about the European Social Survey 25-item condensation of his original 50-item concept, disapproved the WVS 10-item condensation. Our article intends to close this gap and to synthesize the work of these two authors. Note: For reason explained in the main text, Items 9 and 12 are dropped in the final calculation of the replicated dimensions. For such a change to happen, it needs no agent, no campaign, no program, and no particular political systemsuch as democracybecause emancipatory value change is a self-driven automatism by which the human mind adjusts its programming to changing existential conditions. 6: Beliefs, Values, and Cultural Universals, { "6.01:_Value_Orientations_Theory" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "6.02:_Hofstede\u2019s_dimensions_of_culture_theory" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "6.03:_Critique_of_Hofstede\u2019s_theory" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "6.04:_Final_reflection" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()" }, 6.2: Hofstedes dimensions of culture theory, [ "article:topic", "showtoc:no", "license:ccbync", "authorname:nweil" ], https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@app/auth/3/login?returnto=https%3A%2F%2Fsocialsci.libretexts.org%2FBookshelves%2FAnthropology%2FCultural_Anthropology%2FSpeaking_of_Culture_(Weil)%2F06%253A_Beliefs%252C_Values%252C_and_Cultural_Universals%2F6.02%253A_Hofstede%25E2%2580%2599s_dimensions_of_culture_theory, \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}}}\) \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{#1}}} \)\(\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\) \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\) \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \(\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\) \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\) \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)\(\newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\), Table 6.2 Power distance index (PDI) for 50 countries and 3 regions (Hofstede, 1997: 26), Table 6.3 Individualism index (IDV) for 50 countries and 3 regions (Hofstede, 1997: 53), Table 6.4 Masculinity index (MAS) for 50 countries and 3 regions (Hofstede, 1997: 84), Table 6.5 Uncertainty avoidance index (UAI)/ 50 countries and 3 regions (Hofstede, 1997: 113), Table 6.6 Long-term orientation (LTO) for 23 countries (Hofstede, 1997: 166), Table 6.7 Indulgence vs. GDP = gross domestic product. The vertical axis shows the score on this dimension for the last survey wave. . For the 1920-1999 period, we find the slope for the low-income countries to be less steep than for the countries that have experienced faster economic growth, a result found by Inglehart and Welzel (2005) as well. Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory, developed by Geert Hofstede, is a framework used to understand the differences in culture across countries. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. For DistrustTrust, we find the largest contribution of the country-fixed effects, a result in line with our earlier observation on the relative stability of this DistrustTrust dimension across generations. By estimating a fixed-effects model, we control for all other possible characteristics of countries such as their unique country-specific history (including ex-communism) and geography (e.g., climatic conditions). This is confirmed by the positive correlation between gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and CollectivismIndividualism (.71), DutyJoy (.51), and DistrustTrust (.24).Although the changing scores on each of the dimensions over a 15-year period are suggestive of a generational effect, we should be careful when interpreting these patterns. Opinions expressed by the author are not necessarily those of WITI. Results are summarized in Table 5. Interestingly, whereas higher scores on trust have been shown to have a positive effect on economic development (Beugelsdijk, De Groot, & van Schaik, 2004; Beugelsdijk & van Schaik, 2005), our cohort analysis shows that over time generations have moved in the direction toward distrust. A cohort-replacement effect means that younger cohorts enter the population at higher levels of Individualism than older ones and remain more individualistic over time. This dimension reflects the extent to which members of a society attempt to cope with their anxiety by minimizing uncertainty. Simply Scholar Ltd. 20-22 Wenlock Road, London N1 7GU, 2023 Simply Scholar, Ltd. All rights reserved, Correlations with other countrys differences. In fact, Welzel (2013) even shows evidence for divergence, as those countries having been ahead in matters of emancipation already decades ago moved even faster toward more emancipation, Scandinavia and Sweden being the clearest cases in point. A one-dimensional ordering of societies from traditional to modern fitted well with the nineteenth- and . (2010) stress that this dimension refers to enjoying life and having fun, not to gratifying human desires in general. In Masculine countries people live in order to work, managers are expected to be decisive and assertive, the emphasis is on equity, competition and performance and conflicts are resolved by fighting them out. Bond, M. H. (1991). Which dimensions matter for long-run growth? After accounting for differences in level of economic development and generational effects, we find that countries can be grouped together in clusters based on geography, climate, and history, a result in line with Georgas and Berrys (1995) ecocultural model and associated taxonomy of nations. Specifically, we have seen that Ingleharts dynamic theory, which has been criticized for a reductionist dimensionality, applies to the multidimensional framework of Hofstede who has been criticized for a stationary concept of culture. As cutting the sample by (a) cohort, (b) survey year, and (c) country does not yield a sufficient number of observations per cohort, we keep the sample of countries the same in each survey round and compare the overall group of countries. Tables 2 and and33 summarize the final set of items and the pairwise correlations between each of the 15 items and country scores on the original Hofstede dimensions. This is especially relevant to the former Soviet Union and some Eastern European countries. In contrast, Hofstede says a feminine culture or feminine society is one where gender roles are more fluid. Venaik and Brewer (2010) also conclude that Hofstedes Uncertainty Avoidance captures both the stress and anxiety aspect of Uncertainty Avoidance and the rule and order orientation. Hofstedes cultural dimensions can also be used to predict how people from different cultures will interact with each other. (2008). What is Hofstedes theory of masculinity? and formal institutions only work in individualistic cultures. Orr and Hauser (2008) note Hofstedes questionnaire were not originally designed to measure culture but workplace satisfaction. Countries that score low on this third dimension are generally on the right end of the political scale, and feel that democracies are indecisive. Acknowledging that the label may be imperfect but for lack of a better terminology, we decide to label this third dimension Distrust (a low score) versus Trust (a high score). Build Inclusive Cultures. Oyserman D., Coon H., Kemmelmeier M. (2002). 29-31). It does not (see Table A4 in the online appendix). ed. Hofstedes cultural values or dimensions provide a framework through which sociologists can describe the effects of culture on the values of its members and how these values relate to the behavior of people who live within a culture. There is a certain degree of inequality in all societies, notes Hofstede; however, there is relatively more equality in some societies than in others. What is femininity according to Hofstede? Later, researchers added restraint vs. indulgence to this list. In the online appendix (Table A6), we explain our data imputation technique, and show that this imputation of one item for the first dimension and 16 countries does not affect our main conclusion. WVS = World Values Surveys; EVS = European Values Studies. They are happy to have few rules and prefer less structured rather than more tightly structured contexts. Acceptance), Individualism versus Collectivism, and Masculinity versus Femininity. In the workplace, superiors and subordinates are not likely to see each other as equals, and it is assumed that bosses will make decisions without consulting employees. Still, this genetic difference accounts only for a modest proportion of the country specificities in DistrustTrust. South Africa scores 49 on this dimension and thus has a low preference for avoiding uncertainty. This review is aimed at exploring the association between the two aspects of Hofstede's model i.e. This increase on Individualism and Joy suggests there is no evidence that the upward-sloping cohort patterns during the earliest survey reflect a life cycle effect. Supplemental Material: Supplemental material for thhis article is online available. Hofstede, G. (1991). with This can be explained by the the combination of a high Masculinity drive together with the most Individualist drive in the world. Hofstede et al. The younger siblings had to leave home and make their own living with their core families. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted For example, if two people from cultures with high levels of power distance meet, they may have difficulty communicating because they have different expectations about who should be in charge (Hofstede, 2011). roles. The minimum of 15 years reduces the sample size considerably. But all of these scores are based on convenient studentteacher samples. The cohort dummies are significant in all three models. The three-factor solution suggests that the selected WVS-EVS items can be used to capture Individualism and Power Distance (what we call Dimension 1), Long-Term Orientation/IVR (what we call Dimension 2), and Uncertainty Avoidance (what we call Dimension 3). Culture and organizations. 8600 Rockville Pike and transmitted securely. Note: The sample consists of 14 countries (Australia, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, the United States). As already shown in Figures 1 to to3,3, the mean score for CollectivismIndividualism and DutyJoy has increased over the 1990-2010 period and the mean score for DistrustTrust has decreased in that period. In the work place, bosses are more likely to ask employees for input, and in fact, subordinates expect to be consulted. Note: Dots above the Isoline changed toward Individualism, dots below toward Collectivism. 297. girls cry, boys dont; boys fight, girls The sample size can be substantially increased when Item 4 on big interests is excluded. 2.National scores of the Schwartz values are also available for countries outside of Europe. This first dimension captures beliefs about social structures, which is one of Kluckhohn and Strodtbecks (1961) classic cultural dimensions. The third dimension, labeled Distrust-Trust, is based on four items and available for 67 countries. 4.A common mistake is to equate Individualism with egocentric selfishness and the absence of affiliations and solidarity, while Collectivism is equated with the opposite: the absence of selfishness and the presence of affiliations and solidarity. Ingleharts dynamic concept of culture, by contrast, prevails in sociology and political science. Traits of Masculinity / Femininity. The shift from industrial to postindustrial society brings about fundamental changes in peoples daily experiences, which are reflected in changing worldviews (Inglehart & Baker, 2000). Correlation and Regression Analyses of Country-Specific Effect Scores (Unbalanced). In a restrained society, people are more likely to save money and focus on practical needs (Hofstede, 2011). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. In addition, we find that the Bayesian information criterion (BIC) model fit is best in a three-factor model.11 Consistency requires to label both poles on each dimension. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. Individualism and collectivism: Cross-cultural perspectives on self-ingroup relationships, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism. They exhibit great respect for traditions, a relatively small propensity to save for the future, and a focus on achieving quick results. This research is guided by a conceptual model that is underpinned by theories of Hofstede (1984) cultural dimensions, and service quality drawn from management context. There is no reliable data available to calculate a score for the first cohort. The resulting fixed effect can be interpreted as the unique country-specific determinant of scores on the three dimensions of national culture. In countries with low power distance index values, there tends to be more equality between parents and children, with parents more likely to accept it if children argue or talk back to authority. The question as to whether nationals are privileged over immigrants when jobs are scarce is directly related to the definition of Power Distance as given by Globe. The point is that variance/co-variance patterns in psychological orientations are much stronger between than within countries and that the power of culture is responsible for that: culture tends to delimit psychological variation within entities and to expand it between them. The three dimensions we find comprise CollectivismIndividualism, DutyJoy, and DistrustTrust. Applying Ingleharts dynamic concept to our three dimensions, we find that orientations are shifting over the generations (a) from Collectivism toward Individualism and (b) from Duty toward Joyto the extent that socioeconomic development improves objective living conditions that way. Finally, we control for first order autocorrelation by estimating a fixed effect panel with cluster adjusted standard error (Greene, 2008).15. We calculate country averages on the selected items because our analysis is done at the ecological level, which is the appropriate level of analysis when national cultures is the object of study (Hofstede, 2001). For the Czech Republic and Slovakia, we therefore used the gross domestic product (GDP) per capita scores on former Czechoslovakia. 13.With the exception of China, for which we compare the 2000 wave with the 2012 wave. Email: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License (, ONLINE_APPENDIX_final Supplemental material for Dimensions and Dynamics of National Culture: Synthesizing Hofstede With Inglehart, GUID:08293F7A-C497-4190-AD31-59B6B0A38C81. The items in our analysis represent these aspects of Uncertainty Avoidance. The values of a short-term society are related to the past and the present and can result in unrestrained spending, often in response to social or ecological pressure (Hofstede, 1980). This issue is particularly relevant for Hofstedes framework, because his country scores are based on data originally collected more than 40 years ago (1968-1973). The difference between Individualism and Collectivism is by no means one of affiliations per se but of the form of affiliations that prevail. There are no WITI online coaching circles scheduled at this time. Flanagan (1987) argued early on that Ingleharts narrow concept of postmaterialism presses into single dimension things that are in fact dimensionally distinct: namely, postauthoritarian liberalism and postmaterial idealism (see also Welzel, 2007). What is masculinity/femininity? On the contrary, femininity represents a preference for modesty, cooperation, quality of life and caring for the weak. Every day, another 45 publications worldwide cite the cross-cultural work of Geert Hofstede (1980, 2001) and Ronald Inglehart (1971, 1990, 1997). Low-income countries (N = 7; Nrespondents = 37,330) include Egypt, India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Peru, Philippines, and Vietnam. Please check back soon for updates. Apparently, historically emerged differences in country trajectories are by a large magnitude more powerful in CollectivismIndividualism than in the other two dimensions. Masculinity vs. Femininity Masculinity is when status is easily achieved due to material objects, success and money. Unique country-specific factors (measured by the country-fixed effects in Table 6) account for a substantial part of the variation in cultural orientations, depending on the dimension. NOTE: The scores here are for the white population of South Africa. A time-trend effect means that all cohorts turn more individualistic with the passage of time. In other words, countries experiencing similar socioeconomic transformations change their values in the same direction, but they do so coming from different starting positions and continue to move along separate trajectories, which reflect the lasting impact of remote, country-specific historic drivers. Comparative historical GDP data are taken from the Maddison Project 2013 Update (Bolt & van Zanden, 2014).17 The second series of models (Models 2, 5, and 8) show results for the balanced panel for 65 countries including GDP per capita, country-fixed effects, and now include cohort-fixed effects.