Other studies assessed outcomes from hearing dogs (7/27; 26%), guide dogs (4/27; 15%), and medical alert/response service dogs (2/27; 7%). He received his PhD in comparative psychology from the University of California at Davis in 1982, and was a postdoctoral researcher in developmental psychobiology in the department of psychiatry at the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center. In the self-evaluation subcategory, 5/19 (26%) outcomes found a significant effect of having an assistance dog on standardized measures of self-esteem, self-concept, and other measures of self-evaluation. Only 6/27 (22%) reported any estimates of effect size in their results. In the mobility domain, only Milan [41] found a significant effect of having a mobility service dog on the CHART mobility domain (which includes hours per day out of bed and days per week out of the house) while Davis [44] and Rintala et al. Studying other species often avoids some of the complex ethical problems involved in studying humans. When reporting statistical results, 78% of studies (21/27) provided estimates of variability for outcomes, including confidence intervals, standard deviations, or standard error of the mean. The rationale for excluding studies on emotional service dogs and psychiatric service dogs is that the primary benefits of these dogs are psychological in nature, rather than physical or medical, which complicated comparisons of their psychosocial effects. A health information specialist (JY) constructed and executed comprehensive search strategies in six electronic databases: MEDLINE (PubMed platform), Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) (EBSCOhost platform), ERIC (EBSCOHost), Web of Science Core Collection (Web of Science), PsycINFO (EBSCOhost), and PsycARTICLES (EBSCOhost). Subjectivity Researchers working with dolphins and primates have been criticised for becoming overly attached to the research and exaggerating findings. r/psychology How to get your children to eat more fruits and vegetables: Children will eat more fruits and vegetables if families take more time to eat meals. Measures of the same outcome not only can have different wording and items, but also can measure functioning over different time periods or contexts. Additionally, research suggests the relationship between an assistance dog and its owner may also serve as a reciprocal attachment and caregiving relationship characterized by secure and strong attachments [18, 19]. One of the main considerations in understanding the potential variability across findings is the aspect of time since assistance dog placement. The findings from Lorenz's research (as outlined below) offers support for the idea that infants have an attachment gene and that they imprint on a caregiver not long after birth. Ten years from now, students may very well read in their textbooks about a new treatment to help people with Parkinsons disease. Animal models are a fundamental tool in the life sciences. Fig 2 displays the total scores across each of the 15 items, separated by introduction, methods, results, and discussion sections (see S2 Table for individual study scores). [15] found improvements to daily work activities 3- and 12-months after receiving mobility service dog (but not in self-care or dealing with life events). In addition to the different human and dog phenotypes that contribute to this heterogeneity, there are likely differences in the strength of the human-animal bond and attachment relationships formed between assistance dogs and handlers [19, 76]. Two studies from the a single thesis [29] made the remaining 14 comparisons on measures of loneliness distress and complementary loneliness, finding no significant changes to loneliness six months after receiving a hearing dog and no significant group differences in loneliness compared to those without a hearing dog. Most animals, once the testing process has been completed, are euthanized. Lack of control: Another downside is that the experimenter cannot control for outside variables. Of 27 studies, 20 (74%) assessed a psychological outcome with a total of 24 different standardized measures. First, there may be ceiling effects present whereby individuals are functioning at initially healthy levels of the measured construct (e.g., depression, self-esteem) prior to receiving an assistance dog and thus may not significantly improve on these measures. Many scientists study animal behavior because it sheds light on human beings. However, other studies reported no relationship between having a mobility service dog and self-esteem via the RSES [39, 41] or other standardized measures of self-esteem [15, 28, 36]. [45] found higher health-related quality of life among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group, but not among those with a hearing dog. Two of the most well-known animal studies were conducted by Konrad Lorenz and Harry Harlow. In addition to poor methodological reporting, many studies were restrained by statistical weaknesses. Average age across all studies was 42 +/- 13 years old. Equally important is the consideration of the potential harms to humans of not doing the research. Pet-Owning Kids Are Generally Better Off In introduction sections, all studies described an objective, but only 17/27 (63%) of studies stated a directional hypothesis. Opinion: Why research using animals is important in psychology He is currently the chair of APAs Committee on Animal Research and Ethics. Of 27 studies, 15 were cross-sectional and 12 were longitudinal. Using another measure of energy and fatigue, Craft [40] found no difference in those with or without a mobility service dog. All articles were screened by two independent reviewers (authors KR and JG) using Covidence systematic review software (Veritas Health Innovation, Melbourne, Australia). Jamie Greer, The remaining four longitudinal studies assessed participants 35 times with final follow-up ranging from 924 months after receiving an assistance dog. This practice was instrumental in our evolution and in the emergence of civilization. Beyond the functional tasks that assistance dogs are trained for, there is growing literature describing their benefits on the psychosocial health and wellbeing of their handlers. Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. Of five studies using a version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale [55] only Yarmolkevich [46] found significantly lower self-reported loneliness in those with a guide dog compared to a control group. Advantages Useful Findings. MEDLINE search terms and search strategy. [32] found that participants reported worse occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a hearing dog while Davis [44] found that individuals with a mobility service dog reported worse occupational functioning compared to a control group. Therefore, in the cases where positive outcomes were reported in these studies, it is unknown what amount of time with an assistance dog the finding was associated with (and therefore difficult to compare to findings from other studies). As Serpell and colleagues point out, individuals that dont benefit from animal-assisted interventions may be just as informative from a scientific perspective as the ones that do, and the entire field potentially suffers when these sorts of contrary or ambiguous findings get buried or ignored [74]. Records were independently screened by two authors. The principle disadvantage with animal experiments is the problem of generalisability. What are the advantages and disadvantages of animal domestication In fact, nine new articles were identified (three theses, six publications) that had been published since the last review on this topic in 2012 [9]. e0243302. The replicated measures identified in this review can serve as a basis for future researchers to collate the existing literature when making assessment choices. However, methodological rigor did not significantly differ by study design (t(25) = -0.940, p = 0.356). While there are no legal requirements specifying that an assistance dog must be certified, registered, or receive any specialized training to receive public access rights, independent organizations such as ADI, the International Association of Assistance Dog Partners (IAADP), and the International Guide Dog Federation (IGDF) define a set of minimum training and behavior standards for public access that help guide the assistance dog industry. The results of Harlow's experiments indicated that this early maternal deprivation led to serious and irreversible emotional damage. Therefore, detailed descriptions of study populations is critical for helping the field understand for whom assistance dogs are beneficial regarding social, emotional, or psychological health and under what contexts or conditions [74]. However, Guest et al. A more recent systematic review published by Winkle and colleagues in 2012 [9] summarized 12 published quantitative studies on both standardized and nonstandardized outcomes following mobility service dog placement (omitting guide dogs, hearing dogs, and unpublished theses). In fact, positive findings were identified in all domains and sub-domains of psychosocial health and wellbeing. Animal Studies AO1 AO2 AO3 - PSYCHOLOGY WIZARD A total of 254 records were screened via full text, of which 230 were excluded. Will this monkey study, which enabled such a discovery to be made, be described? If youve taken an introductory psychology class, then you have probably read about seminal psychological research that was done with animals: Skinners rats, Pavlovs dogs, Harlows monkeys. However, inclusion and exclusion criteria were less commonly described (17/27; 63%). broad scope, and wide readership a perfect fit for your research every time. This means that any studies on animals cannot be accurately related to humans, making them invalid. If you've taken an introductory psychology class, then you have probably read about seminal psychological research that was done with animals: Skinner's rats, Pavlov's dogs, Harlow's monkeys. To describe study characteristics, extracted items included participant characteristics (sample size, age, gender, country of origin), assistance dog characteristics (type and provider), and details of the study (design, measurement time points, comparison conditions). PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, Future longitudinal research in this population is necessary to understand the complex psychosocial and physical roles that guide dogs play in the lives of their handlers. Within cross-sectional studies, number of years since first partnering with an assistance dog ranged from 6-months to 45 years with means ranging from 29 years. Most articles were published in the 2010s, indicating an increasing publication interest in this topic over time. found better social functioning in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group [16] while Guest found improved social functioning 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog [13]. mobility or guide), thus restricting human participants to a single category of impairments. Limitations of Animal Tests - Humane Society International Our second aim was to evaluate the methodological rigor of studies. Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work. The most common provider organizations represented were Canine Companions for Independence (CCI; six mobility service dog studies), Paws with a Cause (four mobility service dog studies), and Hearing Dogs for Deaf People (HDDP; four hearing dog studies). The disadvantage of animal research is that it lessens the value of life. route finding, retrieving dropped items, alerting to a seizure), the assistance dogs companionship, emotional and social support, and social facilitation effects in public may be particularly salient to improving the quality of life of individuals with disabilities [79]. Further, in contrast to a psychiatric service dog or an emotional support dog, the assistance dogs in this review are not explicitly trained for mental health-related support and their effects on the psychosocial health of their handlers may be variable rather than population-wide. Despite the purpose of these assistance dogs specifically for physical tasks, positive outcomes were noted in psychological, social, quality of life, and vitality domains. 2016 Jul 20;91(2):453-66. Discuss the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Use of Animals for A majority of studies (18/27; 67%) assessed outcomes from mobility service dogs for individuals with physical disabilities. Limitations Finally, one of the most notable examples of poor methodological reporting across studies was the omission of information regarding assistance dogs sources (e.g. If it does, then it can be tested on humans with a lower risk of a negative outcome. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0243302, Editor: Geilson Lima Santana, University of Sao Paulo Medical School, BRAZIL, Received: July 22, 2020; Accepted: November 18, 2020; Published: December 2, 2020. Further, as researchers increasingly incorporate standardized outcome measures into this research, collating and pooling findings will allow researchers to compare outcomes across different populations and interventions while estimating the magnitude of effects across domains. This page has been archived and is no longer being updated regularly. 29 Major Pros & Cons Of Animal Testing - E&C However, 2 studies found worse occupational functioning in terms of employment, schooling, or homemaking. Guest [13] used the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], finding less overall mood disturbance, less tension, and less confusion 3-months after hearing dog placement. The Sad Truth About Pet Ownership and Depression - Psychology Today In the overall quality of life sub-category, 2/8 (25%) comparisons were significant. Table 3 summarizes psychological outcomes across studies in terms of general psychological health, emotional health, mental health, and self-evaluation. Data from 5,191 children were included in the study; 2,236 lived in homes with a dog or cat, and 2,955 lived in households that did not include any animals. Compared to those on the waitlist, individuals with an assistance dog report better psychosocial functioning and wellbeing [16, 17]. Using the Psychosocial Impact of Assistive Devices Scale [PIADS; 54], Vincent et al. However, almost all positive findings were accompanied by a null finding using the same or similar standardized measure in a different study. First, only 59% of studies stated whether ethical approval for human subjects was sought and received. It is unreasonable to assume that the changes to an individuals life following receipt of an assistance dog is identical for all ages, gender identities, backgrounds, and disabilities. The three Rs are a set of principles that scientists are encouraged to follow in order to reduce the impact of research on animals. Second, only 63% of studies described inclusion and/or exclusion criteria of recruited participants, and some studies did not report all demographic or disability characteristics of participants. Methods matter: A primer on permanent and reversible interference Author KR then coded 100% of articles. Not only are companion dogs prevalent in modern society, but dogs are also often intentionally incorporated into therapeutic processes in the contexts of animal-assisted activities (AAA) and animal-assisted therapy [AAT; 1]. A final potential reason for outcome discrepancies is variation in methodological rigor across studies. Using the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], Guest found increased self-reported vigor 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog and less fatigue 3-months after receiving a hearing dog. In these studies, positive findings (i.e., better social functioning in those with an assistance dog compared to a control group) may be partially attributed to an unmeasured variable driving the group difference [77]. Of 34 total quality of life outcomes, 9 (26%) were positive (improved or better quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 22 (65%) were null (no difference) and 3 (9%) were negative (decreased or worse quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Other self-evaluation outcomes assessed with null findings included no differences in self-concept between control groups and those with mobility service dogs [37] or guide dogs [46], no differences in attitude towards a disability 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28] or among guide dog users compared to a control group [38], and no differences in flourishing among guide dog users compared to a control group [46]. [14] which found significantly higher internal locus of control 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog. At this stage, articles were excluded if they were (1) non-English; (2) written for a magazine or other non-peer-reviewed source; (3) book reviews, book chapters, editorials, letters, or opinion papers that did not collect original data; (4) conference abstracts or proceedings; (5) studies assessing companion, therapy, or emotional support animals that were not trained for tasks or work related to a specific disability. However, this research is not only widely disparate but, despite its growth, has not been reviewed since 2012. However, these are relatively new categories of assistance dogs [2], many of which may also be self-trained [62], and it appears that emerging research on this population has centered on medical benefits [63] rather than psychosocial. The most notable weaknesses included a lack of adequate reporting in the methodological sections, which not only limits interpretation of findings but prevents reproducibility. What are the disadvantages of being an animal behaviorist . While results described positive effects of service dogs in terms of social, psychological, and functional benefits for their handlers, it was concluded that all 12 of the studies had weak study designs with limitations including lack of comparison groups, inadequate description of the service dog intervention, and nonstandardized outcome measures. Top 112 + Disadvantages of animal studies in psychology This research aimed to conduct a systematic assessment of the current state of knowledge regarding the potential benefits of assistance dogs on standardized outcomes of the health and wellbeing of individuals with disabilities. Studies on psychiatric service dogs, emotional support dogs, and pet dogs were excluded. Longitudinal assessment time points were varied. Advancing psychology to benefit society and improve lives. Other null findings included no effect of having a guide dog on social conflict stress and interactions with others [42], no improvement in social relationships 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog, and null findings regarding self-reported friendship and companionship with a mobility or medical service dog [16] or 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28]. Another potential explanation for inconsistent findings across studies lies in the inherent variability of the assistance dog intervention itself. The five studies which found that pet owners were less depressed had, on average, many fewer participants (Mean = 401 subjects ) than the studies that found no difference in depression rates (Mean . Overall, sample sizes were higher than what is usually observed in targeted animal-assisted intervention studies with dogs (e.g. Finally, its important to note that animal research in the United States is very tightly regulated by a series of federal and state laws, policies and regulations, dating back to the landmark Animal Welfare Act from 1966. Further, the number of years spent with the assistance dog at the time of surveying was unknown for half of the cross-sectional studies [29, 37, 40, 4245]. https://assistancedogsinternational.org/resources/adi-terms-definitions/, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(98)00120-8, https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/study-quality-assessment-tools, https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/specialist-unit-for-review-evidence/resources/critical-appraisal-checklists, Corrections, Expressions of Concern, and Retractions. [35] found higher health-related quality of life 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog on one of three measures used [EuroQol Visual Analog Scale; 56]. Using other standardized measures of independence, Matsunaka & Koda [42] found that those with guide dogs reported and lower stress while being mobile. However, three studies collapsed analyses across several types of assistance dogs and impairments. BBC - Ethics - Animal ethics: Experimenting on animals However, even within a single category, there are differences in assistance dog breeds, temperaments, and training that may significantly contribute to observed variance across studies. Of 58 total psychological outcomes, 21 (37%) were positive (improved or better psychological health in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 37 (63%) were null (no difference), and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse functioning in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Ironically, those animals that are likely to be the best models for psychopathology are also likely to be considered the . Breakthroughs include the development of many antibiotics, insulin therapy for diabetes, modern anesthesia, vaccines for whooping cough and other diseases, the use of lithium in mental health treatments, and the discovery of .